Which aerodynamic effect causes increased power expenditure during hovering flight for hummingbirds exposed to turbulent air?

💡 Explanation

When a hummingbird hovers in turbulent air, the disrupted airflow elevates induced drag because more energy is required to maintain lift, countering the chaotic gusts. Therefore, the induced drag coefficient increases, rather than other aerodynamic shifts such as boundary layer changes or vortex efficiencies which require more controlled conditions.

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