Which premature failure often arises because chloride concentration exceeds threshold levels near reinforced concrete bridge supports?

💡 Explanation

Chloride ions can diffuse through concrete, attacking the passivating layer on the rebar, resulting in *electrochemical corrosion*. Because oxidation of the steel rebar forms rust, its volume increases; therefore, the concrete cracks and spalls apart, rather than remaining intact from expansive forces with differing chemistry.

• Which outcome occurs in a PID-controlled chemical reactor if the derivative gain is excessively increased?
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